A living document
Every Constitution Amendment Act since 1951, newest first.
2023
The Constitution (Hundred and Sixth Amendment) Act, 2023
Known as the Women's Reservation Act or Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam, this amendment reserves one-third of all seats in the Lok Sabha, state Legislative Assemblies, and the Delhi Legislative Assembly for women, for a period of fifteen years from its commencement. It inserted new Articles 330A, 332A, and 334A, along with a corresponding change to Article 239AA for Delhi, to implement this reservation, which is to take effect after the next delimitation exercise following a census. This was a long-pending reform aimed at increasing women's political representation in India's legislatures.
2021
The Constitution (Hundred and Fifth Amendment) Act, 2021
This amendment restored the power of state governments and union territories to independently identify and specify socially and educationally backward classes for their own list of Other Backward Classes (OBCs). It was enacted specifically to annul a Supreme Court judgment of 11 May 2021 that had held only the central government could identify such backward classes following the 102nd Amendment. This preserved the federal balance by ensuring states retained their traditional role in OBC classification.
2020
The Constitution (Hundred and Fourth Amendment) Act, 2019
This amendment extended the reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies for a further ten years, until 2030. However, unlike previous extensions, it did not extend the nomination of Anglo-Indian members to the Lok Sabha and state assemblies, effectively discontinuing that practice after decades of use. This marked the end of a specific colonial-era political accommodation that had continued since independence.
2019
The Constitution (Hundred and Third Amendment) Act, 2019
This amendment introduced a reservation of up to 10% in government jobs and educational institutions for Economically Weaker Sections (EWS) among citizens who do not already fall under existing reservation categories for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, or Other Backward Classes. It inserted new clauses under Articles 15 and 16 to enable this reservation based purely on economic criteria rather than social or educational backwardness. This was a significant departure from earlier reservation policy, which had been based on caste and social disadvantage.
2018
The Constitution (Hundred and Second Amendment) Act, 2018
This amendment gave constitutional status to the National Commission for Backward Classes, inserting Articles 338B and 342A to define its composition, powers, and the process for identifying socially and educationally backward classes. This elevated the commission from a statutory body to a constitutional one, similar to the commissions for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. It strengthened institutional protection for backward classes' interests.
2017
The Constitution (Hundred and First Amendment) Act, 2016
This landmark amendment introduced the Goods and Services Tax (GST) across India, replacing a complex web of central and state indirect taxes with a single unified tax regime. It inserted new Articles 246A, 269A and 279A to give both Parliament and state legislatures concurrent power to levy GST and to establish the GST Council to oversee rates and administration. This was one of the most significant economic reforms in India's constitutional history, aimed at creating a common national market.
Art. 246AArt. 269AArt. 279AArt. 248Art. 249Art. 250Art. 268Art. 269Art. 270Art. 271Art. 286Art. 366
2015
The Constitution (Hundredth Amendment) Act, 2015
This amendment implemented the Land Boundary Agreement between India and Bangladesh by exchanging certain enclave territories along the border between the two countries. It amended the First Schedule to reflect the transfer of territory and conferred Indian citizenship on residents of the enclaves that came to India. This resolved a decades-old border and enclave dispute between the two neighbouring countries.
2015
The Constitution (Ninety-ninth Amendment) Act, 2014
This amendment sought to replace the existing collegium system of judicial appointments with a National Judicial Appointments Commission comprising judges, the Law Minister, and eminent persons, to make appointments and transfers of judges to the higher judiciary. It was ratified by more than half of the state legislatures and received presidential assent. However, the Supreme Court struck down the amendment on 16 October 2015 in the NJAC case, ruling that it violated the independence of the judiciary, a part of the Constitution's Basic Structure, and restored the collegium system.
Art. 124AArt. 124BArt. 124CArt. 127Art. 128Art. 217Art. 222Art. 224AArt. 231
2013
The Constitution (Ninety-eighth Amendment) Act, 2012
This amendment inserted Article 371J, granting the Governor of Karnataka special responsibility and powers to promote balanced development of the Hyderabad-Karnataka region, including establishing a separate development board and ensuring equitable allocation of educational and vocational training opportunities and government jobs for the region's residents. This was intended to address regional imbalances in development between the Hyderabad-Karnataka area and the rest of the state. It gave the Governor a direct constitutional role in overseeing this regional development effort.
2012
The Constitution (Ninety-seventh Amendment) Act, 2011
This amendment added the words 'or co-operative societies' to Article 19(1)(c), giving citizens a fundamental right to form cooperative societies, and inserted a new Directive Principle, Article 43B, promoting the voluntary and democratic functioning of cooperatives. It also inserted Part IXB laying down detailed provisions for the governance, elections, and accountability of cooperative societies. However, in July 2021 the Supreme Court struck down the part of the amendment dealing with cooperative societies as it fell within the State List and had not been ratified by the states, as required for such amendments.
2011
The Constitution (Ninety-sixth Amendment) Act, 2011
This amendment substituted the spelling 'Odia' for 'Oriya' in the Eighth Schedule, reflecting the official renaming of the language and the state of Odisha (formerly Orissa). This was primarily a linguistic and administrative correction rather than a substantive policy change. It aligned the Constitution's text with the updated official nomenclature.
2010
The Constitution (Ninety-fifth Amendment) Act, 2009
This amendment extended the reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, along with the nomination of Anglo-Indian members, in Parliament and State Legislative Assemblies for another ten years, up to 2020. It continued the well-established decade-long renewal pattern for these provisions. It was the last such extension to also include Anglo-Indian nominations before that provision was later discontinued.
2006
The Constitution (Ninety-fourth Amendment) Act, 2006
This amendment provided for a dedicated Minister of Tribal Welfare to be appointed in the states of Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh, in addition to Madhya Pradesh and Odisha, which already had this requirement under the original Constitution. This ensured a specific ministerial focus on tribal affairs in these newer states with significant tribal populations. It reflected the special status accorded to tribal welfare in states carved out to serve tribal-majority regions.
2006
The Constitution (Ninety-third Amendment) Act, 2005
This amendment enabled the state to make special provisions, including reservation of up to 27%, for the admission of socially and educationally backward classes, including Other Backward Classes, in both government-aided and private educational institutions, with the exception of minority institutions. This extended affirmative action in higher education beyond public institutions to private, unaided institutions as well. It was a significant expansion of reservation policy that led to considerable public debate and litigation.
2004
The Constitution (Ninety-second Amendment) Act, 2003
This amendment added Bodo, Dogri, Santali, and Maithili to the list of official languages recognised in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution. This extended formal constitutional recognition to these languages, spoken by significant populations in different parts of India, bringing the total number of scheduled languages to twenty-two. It reflected continued efforts at linguistic inclusion.
2004
The Constitution (Ninety-first Amendment) Act, 2003
This amendment restricted the total size of the Council of Ministers, at both the central and state level, to no more than 15% of the total number of members in the respective lower house (Lok Sabha or Legislative Assembly), in order to curb the practice of oversized ministries used to accommodate political allies. It also strengthened the anti-defection law by removing the earlier exception that had permitted a split of one-third of a party's legislators without attracting disqualification. This aimed to promote more disciplined and cost-effective governance.
2003
The Constitution (Ninetieth Amendment) Act, 2003
This amendment addressed the composition of the Assam Legislative Assembly in relation to the Bodoland Territorial Area, ensuring the existing representation arrangements for Scheduled Tribes and non-tribal communities within that specific region would not be disturbed by the creation of the Bodoland Territorial Council. It provided a specific carve-out to protect existing political representation during the transition to the new autonomous arrangement. This reflected careful management of a sensitive regional political settlement.
2003
The Constitution (Eighty-ninth Amendment) Act, 2003
This amendment split the single National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes into two separate bodies: the National Commission for Scheduled Castes and the National Commission for Scheduled Tribes. This allowed each commission to focus more specifically on the distinct needs and issues of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes respectively. It reflected the growing recognition that these two groups faced different challenges requiring dedicated institutional attention.
2004
The Constitution (Eighty-eighth Amendment) Act, 2003
This amendment inserted Article 268A and amended Article 270 to provide explicit constitutional backing for the levy and collection of service tax by the central government, and its distribution between the centre and the states. This clarified the constitutional basis for what had previously been levied under ordinary legislative competence, strengthening its legal footing. Service tax later became an important source of central government revenue prior to the introduction of GST.
2003
The Constitution (Eighty-seventh Amendment) Act, 2003
This amendment extended the use of 2001 census population figures, instead of the 1971 figures, for the purpose of state-wise distribution of parliamentary and assembly seats, while still not permitting a change in the total number of seats. It allowed delimitation of constituency boundaries to be updated using more current population data. This balanced the need for updated representation with the earlier freeze on seat totals.
2002
The Constitution (Eighty-sixth Amendment) Act, 2002
This amendment inserted Article 21A, making free and compulsory education a fundamental right for all children between the ages of six and fourteen years. It also amended Articles 45 and 51A to reflect the state's duty to provide early childhood care and education, and a corresponding fundamental duty of parents to ensure their children receive this education. This was a landmark step in India's efforts to achieve universal elementary education.
2002
The Constitution (Eighty-fifth Amendment) Act, 2001
This was a technical amendment clarifying that Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes employees promoted under reservation policy are entitled to 'consequential seniority' in their new positions, not just the promotion itself. This ensured such employees would not be disadvantaged in future promotions due to loss of seniority. It reinforced the practical effectiveness of promotional reservation for SC/ST government employees.
2002
The Constitution (Eighty-fourth Amendment) Act, 2001
This amendment extended the use of 1971 census population figures, rather than more recent census data, as the basis for determining the number of seats allotted to each state in the Lok Sabha and delimiting constituency boundaries. This was done to avoid penalising states that had successfully controlled population growth, since faster-growing states would otherwise gain disproportionately more seats. It froze the basis for delimitation until later census data would be used following further review.
2000
The Constitution (Eighty-third Amendment) Act, 2000
This amendment exempted the state of Arunachal Pradesh from the requirement to reserve seats for Scheduled Castes in its Panchayati Raj institutions, given that the state has a negligible Scheduled Caste population. This was a practical accommodation reflecting Arunachal Pradesh's demographic composition. It avoided imposing an inapplicable reservation requirement on the state's local government bodies.
2000
The Constitution (Eighty-second Amendment) Act, 2000
This amendment permitted the state to relax qualifying marks or lower evaluation standards in matters of reservation in promotion for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes candidates. This gave legislative backing to affirmative measures aimed at increasing SC/ST representation in higher grades of public employment. It was a response to judicial rulings that had questioned such relaxations.
2000
The Constitution (Eighty-first Amendment) Act, 2000
This amendment allowed the state to treat unfilled reserved vacancies for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes from previous years as a separate class of vacancies, to be filled in subsequent years without being subject to the 50% ceiling on total reservations. This protected backlog vacancies for SC/ST candidates from being effectively lost due to the reservation cap. It addressed practical difficulties in fully implementing reservation policy over time.
2000
The Constitution (Eightieth Amendment) Act, 2000
This amendment implemented the recommendations of the Tenth Finance Commission by simplifying India's tax-sharing arrangements, replacing the earlier system of separately sharing individual taxes with a scheme of pooling all central taxes and distributing a fixed percentage to the states. It also removed the earlier constitutional requirement for a specific tax-sharing mechanism under Article 272. This created a more straightforward and predictable fiscal federalism arrangement between the centre and states.
2000
The Constitution (Seventy-ninth Amendment) Act, 1999
This amendment extended the reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, and the nomination of Anglo-Indian members, in Parliament and State Legislative Assemblies for another ten years, until 2010. It continued the periodic decade-long renewal of these constitutionally mandated reservations. This followed the same pattern established since the original Constitution.
1995
The Constitution (Seventy-eighth Amendment) Act, 1995
This amendment placed further land reform acts and their subsequent amendments under the protection of the Ninth Schedule. This continued the decades-long pattern of shielding land redistribution legislation from being invalidated for infringing fundamental rights. It reflected ongoing state-level land reform efforts across India.
1995
The Constitution (Seventy-seventh Amendment) Act, 1995
This amendment was a technical fix to protect the reservation of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes employees in promotions, following a Supreme Court ruling that had cast doubt on such reservations. It clarified that reservation in matters of promotion for these groups remained constitutionally permissible. This preserved existing government policy on promotional reservations for SC/ST employees.
1994
The Constitution (Seventy-sixth Amendment) Act, 1994
This amendment enabled the continuance of 69% reservation for backward classes, Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Tamil Nadu, which exceeded the 50% ceiling on reservations set by the Supreme Court, by placing the relevant Tamil Nadu legislation under the protective Ninth Schedule. This shielded the higher reservation percentage from being struck down as unconstitutional. It reflected the state government's strong political commitment to its existing reservation policy.
1994
The Constitution (Seventy-fifth Amendment) Act, 1994
This amendment inserted a new Article 323B provision enabling the establishment of Rent Control Tribunals to adjudicate disputes between landlords and tenants outside the ordinary court system. This was intended to speed up the resolution of rent-related disputes, which had often been mired in lengthy litigation in civil courts. It reflected a broader trend of creating specialised tribunals for specific categories of disputes.
1993
The Constitution (Seventy-fourth Amendment) Act, 1992
This amendment inserted Part IXA and the Twelfth Schedule to give constitutional status to urban local bodies such as Municipalities and Municipal Corporations as a third tier of self-government in towns and cities. It mandated regular elections, reservation of seats for women and disadvantaged groups, and devolution of specific functions such as urban planning and public health to these bodies. It also amended Article 280 to include local bodies in the terms of reference of the Finance Commission, ensuring them a share of financial resources.
1993
The Constitution (Seventy-third Amendment) Act, 1992
This landmark amendment inserted Part IX and the Eleventh Schedule into the Constitution, giving constitutional status to Panchayati Raj institutions as a third tier of self-government in rural India. It mandated regular elections to village, block and district-level panchayats, reserved seats for women, Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, and devolved specific powers and responsibilities to these local bodies. This was a major step toward grassroots democracy and decentralisation of governance in rural areas.
1992
The Constitution (Seventy-second Amendment) Act, 1992
This amendment provided for the reservation of seats for Scheduled Tribes in the Legislative Assembly of the newly reorganised State of Tripura. It ensured tribal political representation was maintained following changes to the state's electoral arrangements. This was consistent with similar provisions extended to other states with significant tribal populations.
1992
The Constitution (Seventy-first Amendment) Act, 1992
This amendment added Konkani, Manipuri, and Nepali to the list of official languages recognised in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution. This gave formal constitutional recognition to these languages, spoken by significant populations in Goa, Manipur, and among Nepali-speaking communities respectively. It expanded linguistic inclusion within the constitutional framework.
1991
The Constitution (Seventieth Amendment) Act, 1992
This amendment included the elected members of the Legislative Assemblies of the National Capital Territory of Delhi and the Union Territory of Pondicherry in the Electoral College that elects the President of India. Previously, only members of state legislative assemblies had this role. This extended the franchise for presidential elections to these Union Territories with their own legislatures.
1992
The Constitution (Sixty-ninth Amendment) Act, 1991
This amendment provided for a Legislative Assembly and a Council of Ministers for the National Capital Territory of Delhi, while retaining Delhi's status as a Union Territory rather than a full state. It inserted Articles 239AA and 239AB to set out the powers and functioning of this new elected government and its relationship with the centrally appointed Lieutenant Governor. This gave Delhi's residents a greater degree of local self-governance while preserving central oversight over key subjects like police and land.
1991
The Constitution (Sixty-eighth Amendment) Act, 1991
This amendment extended the maximum permissible duration of President's Rule in Punjab yet again, this time to up to five years. It was the last in the series of successive extensions of central rule in the state necessitated by the prolonged political and security crisis there. It reflected the gradual, extended path back to normal elected governance in Punjab.
1990
The Constitution (Sixty-seventh Amendment) Act, 1990
This amendment further extended the period during which President's Rule could remain in force in Punjab, this time allowing it up to four years. It reflected the continuing inability to restore a functioning elected state government amid ongoing unrest. This was another in the series of Punjab-specific extensions of central rule.
1990
The Constitution (Sixty-sixth Amendment) Act, 1990
This amendment placed additional land reform acts and their amendments under the protection of the Ninth Schedule. This continued the long-standing practice of shielding land redistribution legislation from constitutional challenges on the ground that it infringed fundamental rights. It was consistent with amendments passed in earlier decades for the same purpose.
1992
The Constitution (Sixty-fifth Amendment) Act, 1990
This amendment established the National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes as a constitutional body and specified its statutory powers, including the ability to investigate complaints, monitor safeguards, and report to Parliament. It replaced the earlier arrangement of a Special Officer for this purpose with a stronger, multi-member commission. This gave greater institutional weight to protecting the interests of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
1990
The Constitution (Sixty-fourth Amendment) Act, 1990
This amendment further extended the permissible duration of President's Rule in Punjab, allowing it to continue for up to three years and six months. This reflected the continuing political and security difficulties in the state that were preventing the restoration of normal elected government. It was one of several successive extensions specific to Punjab during this turbulent period.
1990
The Constitution (Sixty-third Amendment) Act, 1989
This amendment repealed Article 359A, which had earlier allowed special emergency powers to be applied specifically to Punjab. It reflected an easing of the security situation in the state and a move away from the exceptional emergency measures that had been introduced in the late 1980s. This restored Punjab's constitutional status closer to that of other states.
1990
The Constitution (Sixty-second Amendment) Act, 1989
This amendment extended the reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, along with the nomination of Anglo-Indian members, in Parliament and State Legislative Assemblies for a further ten years, until the year 2000. It continued the periodic renewal of these constitutionally mandated reservations. This followed the established pattern of decade-long extensions.
1989
The Constitution (Sixty-first Amendment) Act, 1988
This amendment lowered the voting age in India from 21 to 18 years, significantly expanding the electorate by enfranchising millions of young citizens. It reflected the view that Indian youth had matured politically and deserved a voice in choosing their representatives at a younger age, consistent with global trends. This remains one of the most significant expansions of democratic participation in India's constitutional history.
1988
The Constitution (Sixtieth Amendment) Act, 1988
This amendment raised the maximum ceiling on the profession tax that states could levy on income from professions, trades, callings and employments, increasing it from Rs. 250 to Rs. 2,500 per year. This gave states more fiscal room to raise revenue from professional taxes, accounting for inflation since the original limit was set. It was a straightforward fiscal adjustment.
1988
The Constitution (Fifty-ninth Amendment) Act, 1988
This amendment extended the maximum period of President's Rule permissible in Punjab to three years, and inserted Article 359A allowing a state of emergency to be declared for the whole or specific districts of Punjab given the security situation there at the time. This was part of a series of special measures adopted in response to militancy and unrest in Punjab during the 1980s. It represented an unusual, geographically targeted expansion of emergency powers.
1987
The Constitution (Fifty-eighth Amendment) Act, 1987
This amendment inserted Article 394A, requiring the publication of an authoritative Hindi translation of the Constitution as it stood at that time, along with a mechanism to publish authentic Hindi translations of future constitutional amendments. This gave official status to the Hindi text of the Constitution alongside the authoritative English version. It reflected the constitutional commitment to promoting Hindi.
1987
The Constitution (Fifty-seventh Amendment) Act, 1987
This amendment provided for the reservation of seats for Scheduled Tribes in the Legislative Assemblies of Nagaland, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh. It ensured continued political representation for tribal populations in these North-Eastern states at the state assembly level. This complemented earlier amendments extending similar protections to the Lok Sabha.
1987
The Constitution (Fifty-sixth Amendment) Act, 1987
This amendment inserted a transitional provision, Article 371I, to enable the smooth formation of the State of Goa following its earlier status as a Union Territory. It set out how Goa's transition to statehood, along with its Legislative Assembly, would be administered during the changeover period. This ensured legal and administrative continuity as Goa gained full statehood.
1987
The Constitution (Fifty-fifth Amendment) Act, 1986
This amendment inserted a new Article 371H granting special powers to the Governor of Arunachal Pradesh, particularly regarding law and order, following the state's formation. It reflected the need for a stronger executive role during Arunachal Pradesh's transition to full statehood, given its strategic border location. This was similar to special provisions extended to other newly formed North-Eastern states.
1986
The Constitution (Fifty-fourth Amendment) Act, 1986
This amendment increased the salaries of the Chief Justice of India and other judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts, and established a mechanism for determining future salary revisions without requiring a fresh constitutional amendment each time. This modernised judicial compensation to keep pace with rising costs of living. It reduced the administrative burden of legislating every salary change.
1986
The Constitution (Fifty-third Amendment) Act, 1986
This amendment inserted a new Article 371G granting special constitutional provisions for the State of Mizoram, protecting its customary laws, religious and social practices, and land ownership from being overridden by ordinary legislation without the consent of the Mizoram Legislative Assembly. This was part of the peace accord process that brought insurgency in Mizoram to an end and enabled its transition to full statehood. It mirrored similar protections granted to Nagaland.
1985
The Constitution (Fifty-second Amendment) Act, 1985
Known as the Anti-Defection Law, this amendment inserted the Tenth Schedule to disqualify members of Parliament or state legislatures who defect from the political party on whose ticket they were elected. It was intended to curb political instability caused by frequent floor-crossing and horse-trading among legislators. However, in Kihoto Hollohan v. Zachillhu (1992), the Supreme Court struck down paragraph 7 of the Tenth Schedule, which had barred judicial review of the Speaker's decisions on disqualification, for violating Article 368.
1986
The Constitution (Fifty-first Amendment) Act, 1984
This amendment extended reservation of seats for Scheduled Tribes in the Lok Sabha for Nagaland, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Arunachal Pradesh, and similarly extended reservations in the State Legislative Assemblies of Meghalaya and Arunachal Pradesh. This ensured tribal political representation in these North-Eastern states with significant tribal populations. It was consistent with the Constitution's broader affirmative-action framework for Scheduled Tribes.
1984
The Constitution (Fiftieth Amendment) Act, 1984
This was a technical amendment to Article 33, which allows Parliament to restrict fundamental rights for members of the armed forces and police to ensure discipline. The amendment extended this power to cover personnel entrusted with protecting property and communication infrastructure, such as those guarding telecommunications or intelligence installations. This closed a gap that had left such personnel outside the scope of the article's restrictions.
1984
The Constitution (Forty-ninth Amendment) Act, 1984
This amendment recognised Tripura as having a tribal population requiring special protection and enabled the creation of a Tripura Tribal Areas Autonomous District Council under the Sixth Schedule framework. This granted greater self-governance to tribal communities within Tripura over local matters. It extended a model of tribal autonomy previously used in other North-Eastern states.
1985
The Constitution (Forty-eighth Amendment) Act, 1984
This amendment modified Article 356 to permit the imposition of President's Rule in the state of Punjab for a period of up to two years, exceeding the usual one-year limit. This was a response to the serious law and order and political crisis in Punjab during the 1980s. It reflected special constitutional accommodation for an extraordinary security situation.
1984
The Constitution (Forty-seventh Amendment) Act, 1984
This amendment placed additional land reform acts, along with their amendments, under the protection of the Ninth Schedule. This continued shielding agrarian reform legislation from being invalidated on the grounds that it infringed fundamental rights such as the right to property. It was consistent with the ongoing legislative strategy adopted since the 1950s.
1983
The Constitution (Forty-sixth Amendment) Act, 1982
This amendment was enacted to override certain judicial rulings that had narrowed the scope of state sales tax laws, particularly concerning works contracts and hire-purchase transactions. It clarified and expanded the definition of 'sale' for tax purposes to include such transactions. This ensured states could continue collecting revenue from these forms of commerce without being blocked by adverse court interpretations.
1980
The Constitution (Forty-fifth Amendment) Act, 1980
This amendment extended the reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, as well as the nomination of Anglo-Indian members, in Parliament and State Legislative Assemblies for another ten years, until 1990. It continued the periodic renewal pattern established for these temporary constitutional protections. This reflected ongoing recognition that the underlying social disadvantages had not yet been remedied.
1978
The Constitution (Forty-fourth Amendment) Act, 1978
This amendment further reversed Emergency-era changes and restored important democratic safeguards. It removed the right to property from the list of Fundamental Rights under Article 19(1)(f), making it instead a legal right under a new Article 300A, and reinstated protections against arbitrary detention and misuse of Emergency powers. Overall, it was designed to prevent future governments from repeating the abuses of executive and legislative power seen during the Emergency.
Art. 19Art. 22Art. 30Art. 31AArt. 31CArt. 38Art. 71Art. 74Art. 77Art. 83Art. 103Art. 105
1978
The Constitution (Forty-third Amendment) Act, 1977
This amendment was passed after the internal Emergency was lifted and reversed some of the more restrictive changes made by the Forty-second Amendment. It removed provisions such as Articles 31D, 32A, 131A, 144A, 226A and 228A that had curtailed the power of judicial review and freedom of the press. It restored a measure of the checks and balances that had been eroded during the Emergency period.
Art. 145Art. 226Art. 228Art. 366Art. 31DArt. 32AArt. 131AArt. 144AArt. 226AArt. 228A
1976
The Constitution (Forty-second Amendment) Act, 1976
This sweeping amendment, passed during the internal Emergency under Indira Gandhi, curtailed several fundamental rights, added a new chapter of Fundamental Duties for citizens, and inscribed the words 'Socialist' and 'Secular' into the Preamble, redefining India as a 'Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic Republic'. It also expanded the powers of the central government relative to the states and sought to place constitutional amendments themselves beyond judicial review. In Minerva Mills v. Union of India (1980), the Supreme Court struck down the changes to Articles 31C and 368 for violating the Basic Structure doctrine, restoring the judiciary's power of review.
Art. 31Art. 31CArt. 39Art. 55Art. 74Art. 77Art. 81Art. 82Art. 83Art. 100Art. 102Art. 103
1976
The Constitution (Forty-first Amendment) Act, 1976
This amendment raised the retirement age for Chairmen and Members of the Union and State Public Service Commissions from 60 to 62 years. It also sought to bar legal proceedings against the President, Vice-President, Prime Minister and Governors even after they left office, extending immunity beyond their term. This latter protection was controversial and its practical effect was later curtailed by subsequent legal developments.
1976
The Constitution (Fortieth Amendment) Act, 1976
This amendment empowered Parliament to legislate over India's Exclusive Economic Zone and vested mineral and other resource wealth within it with the Union of India. It also added various land reform and other acts to the protected Ninth Schedule. This strengthened central control over maritime economic resources at a time when international law on exclusive economic zones was developing.
1975
The Constitution (Thirty-ninth Amendment) Act, 1975
This amendment was enacted specifically to negate the Allahabad High Court's judgment in State of Uttar Pradesh v. Raj Narain, which had invalidated Prime Minister Indira Gandhi's election. It inserted Article 329A, placing election disputes involving the Prime Minister, President, Vice-President and Speaker of the Lok Sabha beyond the scope of ordinary judicial review, and placed related laws in the Ninth Schedule. The Supreme Court later struck down the key clauses of Article 329A in Indira Nehru Gandhi v. Raj Narain (1975) for violating the Basic Structure of the Constitution.
1975
The Constitution (Thirty-eighth Amendment) Act, 1975
This amendment enhanced the powers of the President and state Governors to promulgate ordinances, and made the President's satisfaction in declaring emergencies under Articles 352, 356 and 359 non-justiciable, meaning courts could not question it. It was enacted during the period surrounding the imposition of the internal Emergency by Indira Gandhi's government. This significantly expanded executive discretion at the expense of judicial oversight.
1975
The Constitution (Thirty-seventh Amendment) Act, 1975
This amendment provided for the formation of a Legislative Assembly for the Union Territory of Arunachal Pradesh, extending representative self-government to the territory. It made corresponding changes to the provisions governing Union Territories with legislatures. This was part of the ongoing process of political development in India's North-East.
1975
The Constitution (Thirty-sixth Amendment) Act, 1975
This amendment completed the integration of Sikkim by making it a full state of the Indian Union, repealing the earlier 'Associate State' arrangement created by the Thirty-fifth Amendment. It removed Article 2A and the Tenth Schedule and instead inserted Article 371F, granting Sikkim special constitutional protections regarding its laws, land, and political representation. This marked Sikkim's formal and complete accession as an Indian state.
Art. 80Art. 81Art. 371FArt. 2AArt. 1st ScheduleArt. 4th ScheduleArt. 10th Schedule
1975
The Constitution (Thirty-fifth Amendment) Act, 1974
This amendment set out the terms and conditions for incorporating Sikkim, then a protectorate, into the Union of India as an 'Associate State', inserting a new Article 2A and a Tenth Schedule detailing Sikkim's special status. This was an interim arrangement preceding Sikkim's full statehood the following year. It reflected the gradual process of formally integrating Sikkim into India.
1974
The Constitution (Thirty-fourth Amendment) Act, 1974
This amendment placed several state land reform acts and their subsequent amendments under the protection of the Ninth Schedule. This shielded these land redistribution laws from being invalidated by courts for infringing fundamental rights such as the right to property. It continued the pattern of using the Ninth Schedule as a legislative safeguard for agrarian reform.
1974
The Constitution (Thirty-third Amendment) Act, 1974
This amendment laid down a clear procedure for the resignation of Members of Parliament and state legislatures, requiring the Speaker or Chairman to satisfy themselves that a resignation was voluntary and genuine before accepting it. This closed a gap where resignations could previously be accepted without adequate verification, potentially enabling coercion or manipulation. It strengthened procedural safeguards around legislative membership.
1974
The Constitution (Thirty-second Amendment) Act, 1973
This amendment inserted special provisions, including Articles 371D and 371E, to protect regional interests and ensure equitable treatment for the Telangana and Andhra regions within the state of Andhra Pradesh, particularly in matters of public employment and education. However, the Supreme Court later held key clauses of Article 371D unconstitutional in P. Sambamurthy v. State of Andhra Pradesh (1987), finding them to violate the Basic Structure doctrine and the rule of law. This history illustrates the tension between regional accommodation and constitutional principles.
1973
The Constitution (Thirty-first Amendment) Act, 1973
This amendment increased the total strength of the Lok Sabha from 525 to 545 seats, primarily to accommodate additional seats for the newly formed states in North-East India and to make minor adjustments following the 1971 delimitation exercise. It ensured better representation for the region's growing and reorganised population. This adjustment reflected the practical necessities of an evolving federal structure.
1972
The Constitution (Thirtieth Amendment) Act, 1972
This amendment changed the basis on which civil appeals could be brought to the Supreme Court of India, shifting from a monetary value threshold to a requirement that the case involve a substantial question of law of general importance. This was intended to reduce frivolous appeals based merely on the amount in dispute and focus the Supreme Court's docket on legally significant matters. It streamlined the Court's appellate civil jurisdiction.
1972
The Constitution (Twenty-ninth Amendment) Act, 1972
This amendment placed two Kerala land reform acts, along with their amendments, into the protected Ninth Schedule of the Constitution. This shielded these land reform laws from being struck down by courts for violating fundamental rights, particularly the right to property. It reflected the continuing legislative strategy of using the Ninth Schedule to safeguard agrarian reform measures.
1972
The Constitution (Twenty-eighth Amendment) Act, 1972
This amendment rationalised civil service rules to create a uniform framework covering officers appointed both before and after independence, particularly those from the Indian Civil Service and Indian Police. It inserted Article 312A giving Parliament power to vary or revoke the special conditions of service that had previously applied to such officers, and removed the now-redundant Article 314. This helped modernise and standardize the civil service.
1972
The Constitution (Twenty-seventh Amendment) Act, 1971
This amendment provided for the reorganisation of Mizoram into a Union Territory with its own legislature and council of ministers, along similar lines to other Union Territories with legislative assemblies. It inserted new provisions enabling this administrative and political structure. This was part of the broader restructuring of India's North-Eastern region in response to local political demands.
1971
The Constitution (Twenty-sixth Amendment) Act, 1971
This amendment abolished the privy purses and privileges that had been guaranteed to former rulers of princely states when they acceded to the Indian Union after independence. It removed the constitutional guarantees under Articles 291 and 362 and inserted Article 363A to formally end recognition of these rulers' special status. This was a significant step toward economic and political equality by ending vestiges of princely privilege.
1971
The Constitution (Twenty-fifth Amendment) Act, 1971
This amendment curtailed the right to property by limiting the compensation payable when the state acquired private property for public purposes, and inserted Article 31C to protect laws implementing certain Directive Principles from being challenged on the ground that they violated Articles 14, 19 or 31. However, in the landmark Kesavananda Bharati case, the Supreme Court struck down the part of Article 31C that had barred judicial review, and in doing so enunciated the Basic Structure doctrine that continues to limit Parliament's amending power today.
1971
The Constitution (Twenty-fourth Amendment) Act, 1971
This amendment affirmed Parliament's power to amend any part of the Constitution, including the Fundamental Rights, by adding Article 13(4) and making corresponding changes to Article 368. It also made it mandatory for the President to give assent to constitutional amendment bills passed by Parliament, removing any discretion to withhold assent. This was a direct response to earlier Supreme Court rulings that had limited Parliament's amending power over fundamental rights.
1970
The Constitution (Twenty-third Amendment) Act, 1969
This amendment discontinued the reservation of seats for Scheduled Tribes in Nagaland's Lok Sabha and State Assembly seats, while limiting the Governor's nomination of Anglo-Indian members to State Assemblies to at most one person. It also extended reservations for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Anglo-Indians in the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies generally for another ten years, until 1980. This balanced specific regional adjustments with the continuation of the broader affirmative-action framework.
1969
The Constitution (Twenty-second Amendment) Act, 1969
This amendment enabled the creation of autonomous states within the existing State of Assam, inserting new provisions to allow such autonomous regions greater self-governance over specified matters. It was aimed at addressing demands from tribal and hill communities within Assam for greater administrative autonomy. This paved the way for later reorganisation of the North-East.
1967
The Constitution (Twenty-first Amendment) Act, 1967
This amendment added Sindhi as an official language recognised in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution. This gave formal constitutional status to Sindhi, an important language for the Sindhi community that had migrated to India after Partition. It expanded linguistic recognition without altering government structure.
1966
The Constitution (Twentieth Amendment) Act, 1966
This amendment validated and protected the appointments, postings, promotions and transfers of certain judges, along with judgments and orders they had passed, after a court ruling had cast doubt on the legality of some judicial appointments in Uttar Pradesh. It inserted Article 233A to retrospectively cure this defect, except for a few judges who remained ineligible. This prevented widespread disruption of judicial decisions due to a technical appointment flaw.
1966
The Constitution (Nineteenth Amendment) Act, 1966
This amendment abolished separate Election Tribunals that had been hearing disputes over elections and transferred that jurisdiction to the regular High Courts. This was meant to streamline the resolution of election petitions by using the existing judicial infrastructure rather than special tribunals. It improved consistency and efficiency in adjudicating election disputes.
1966
The Constitution (Eighteenth Amendment) Act, 1966
This was a technical amendment clarifying that the term 'State' in Article 3 includes Union Territories, thereby permitting Parliament to alter the areas, boundaries, or names of Union Territories in the same manner as states. This gave the central government clearer authority to reorganise Union Territories as needed. It closed a legal ambiguity in the original wording of Article 3.
1964
The Constitution (Seventeenth Amendment) Act, 1964
This amendment further secured the constitutional validity of land acquisition laws related to the abolition of large agricultural estates by placing more such laws under the protective Ninth Schedule. It also refined the definition of an 'estate' under Article 31A to ensure land reform measures could not easily be struck down by courts on the basis of violating fundamental rights. This continued the broader legislative push toward agrarian reform in India.
1963
The Constitution (Sixteenth Amendment) Act, 1963
This amendment made it obligatory for candidates seeking public office, including as members of legislatures, to take an oath affirming their allegiance to the sovereignty and integrity of India. It prescribed the specific forms of oaths to be used for this purpose. The change was a response to secessionist movements and aimed to reinforce national unity among those holding public office.
1963
The Constitution (Fifteenth Amendment) Act, 1963
This amendment raised the retirement age of High Court judges from 60 to 62 years and made several other rationalising changes regarding the appointment, transfer and service conditions of judges. It aimed to retain experienced judicial talent for longer and streamline judicial administration rules. It was largely a technical, judiciary-focused reform.
Art. 124Art. 128Art. 217Art. 222Art. 224Art. 226Art. 297Art. 311Art. 316Art. 224AArt. 7th Schedule
1962
The Constitution (Fourteenth Amendment) Act, 1962
This amendment formally incorporated Puducherry (then Pondicherry) into the Union of India as a Union Territory, following its transfer from French control. It also created Legislative Assemblies for Himachal Pradesh, Tripura, Manipur and Goa, extending representative governance to these territories. This expanded local political participation across several regions being integrated into or newly represented within the Union.
1962
The Constitution (Thirteenth Amendment) Act, 1962
This amendment inserted a new Article 371A granting special protections and provisions for the newly created state of Nagaland, respecting its distinct customary laws and social practices. It ensured that Naga customary law, religious and social practices, and ownership of land and resources would not be overridden by ordinary parliamentary legislation without the consent of the Nagaland Legislative Assembly. This was a key accommodation enabling Nagaland's peaceful integration into the Indian Union.
1962
The Constitution (Twelfth Amendment) Act, 1962
This amendment formally incorporated Goa, Daman and Diu as a Union Territory of India following their acquisition from Portugal in 1961. It updated the relevant constitutional provisions and schedules to reflect this new territorial status. This completed another step in ending European colonial enclaves within India.
1961
The Constitution (Eleventh Amendment) Act, 1961
This amendment changed the method of electing the Vice President of India from a joint sitting of both Houses of Parliament to an Electoral College consisting of members of both Houses voting separately. It also protected the election procedures of the President and Vice President from being challenged merely because there were vacancies in the electoral college at the time. This ensured administrative continuity and stability in the electoral process for these high offices.
1961
The Constitution (Tenth Amendment) Act, 1961
This amendment incorporated Dadra and Nagar Haveli as a Union Territory of India, following its acquisition from Portuguese colonial control. It amended the relevant provisions to bring the territory formally under Indian constitutional governance. This was part of India's broader process of integrating former Portuguese colonial enclaves.
1960
The Constitution (Ninth Amendment) Act, 1960
This amendment made minor adjustments to the territory of the Indian Union following an agreement with Pakistan to settle border disputes through demarcation of certain border villages. It updated the First Schedule accordingly. The change was largely administrative, reflecting a specific bilateral border settlement.
1960
The Constitution (Eighth Amendment) Act, 1959
This amendment extended the reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and the nomination of Anglo-Indian members in the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies until 1970. This continued the temporary affirmative-action framework the Constitution's framers had originally envisioned as a time-bound measure. It reflected recognition that social and educational disadvantages faced by these communities had not yet been overcome.
1956
The Constitution (Seventh Amendment) Act, 1956
This major amendment implemented the reorganisation of Indian states along linguistic lines, following the recommendations of the States Reorganisation Commission. It abolished the earlier Part A, B, C, and D state classifications and introduced the concept of Union Territories administered directly by the centre. This reshaped the political map of India and remains one of the most consequential structural amendments to the Constitution.
Art. 1Art. 3Art. 49Art. 80Art. 81Art. 82Art. 131Art. 153Art. 158Art. 168Art. 170Art. 171
1956
The Constitution (Sixth Amendment) Act, 1956
This amendment revised the Union and State Lists in the Seventh Schedule concerning the power to levy taxes, particularly sales tax on inter-state trade. It clarified which level of government could tax goods sold across state lines, resolving disputes between the centre and states over sales tax jurisdiction. This was an important step in defining fiscal federalism in India.
1955
The Constitution (Fifth Amendment) Act, 1955
This amendment empowered the President to set a time limit within which a State Legislature must respond with its views on proposed central legislation altering that state's boundaries, area, or name. The President could also extend this deadline. It streamlined the process for reorganizing states by preventing indefinite delay from state legislatures.
1955
The Constitution (Fourth Amendment) Act, 1955
This amendment strengthened the state's power over property acquisition, particularly land reform, by amending provisions on compensation and adding more laws to the protected Ninth Schedule. It allowed the state to fix ceilings on the amount of agricultural land an individual could hold, furthering land redistribution goals. It also gave the state greater control over mineral and oil resources, reflecting the government's socialist economic priorities of the era.
1955
The Constitution (Third Amendment) Act, 1954
This amendment re-enacted entry 33 of the Concurrent List in the Seventh Schedule to explicitly include trade, commerce, production, supply and distribution of essential commodities like foodstuffs, cattle fodder, raw cotton and raw jute. This gave both the central and state governments clear concurrent power to legislate on these goods, which was important for regulating scarce commodities in the newly independent nation. It clarified overlapping jurisdiction that had caused confusion.
1953
The Constitution (Second Amendment) Act, 1953
This amendment removed the fixed ceiling of 750,000 people per parliamentary constituency that had been set out in Article 81(1)(b). In practical terms, it meant that a single Member of Parliament could represent a larger population than originally envisioned, giving Parliament flexibility in delimiting constituencies as India's population grew. It was a purely technical fix rather than a policy shift.
1951
The Constitution (First Amendment) Act, 1951
This amendment added special provisions allowing the state to make laws for the advancement of socially and educationally backward classes, including Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. It was enacted to protect land reform (zamindari abolition) laws from being struck down as violating property rights, and to allow reasonable restrictions on freedom of speech. It also created the Ninth Schedule, a new constitutional device that shields listed laws from being challenged for violating fundamental rights, a mechanism later much debated for enabling government overreach.
Art. 15Art. 19Art. 31AArt. 31BArt. 85Art. 87Art. 174Art. 176Art. 341Art. 342Art. 372Art. 376